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T.L.E

"GRAPHICS, SCIENCE AND ARTS"

BOOKBINDING

Bookbinding is, of course, the process of fastening together the multiple pages which make up a given book, and covering the result. Given the changes which have occurred in the past ten or fifteen years, both in structural technique and artistic presentation, the subject is complex and often controversial.

Traditionally, the craft of bookbinding is divided into the areas of forwarding and finishing. Forwarding consists of all the procedures leading up to the decoration of the covers. That is, folding the leaves into pages and gathering into signatures or quires, sewing them together, adding endpapers, attaching boards, and covering. In other words, the binding proper. Finishing is a specialized field involving gold (or blind) tooling, and sometimes inlay and on lay work: the artistic embellishment of the binding.

Note that there is a significant difference between Eastern and Western binding. In the west, the sheets of paper are relatively thick and opaque enough to print on both sides, and when folded, are sewn through the fold. In the east the sheets are much thinner and relatively transparent so they are printed on one side only. The sheets are folded so that the printed side is outermost, and the sewing is done opposite the fold, through the edges of the two loose halves. Books sewn in the Eastern style do not open flat.

SOME HAND BOOKBINDING TERMS

GRAIN DIRECTION (Grain) The direction in which most of the fibers in machine made paper lie. Grain direction should be parallel to the spine of the book.

SIGNATURE (or Section) A number of leaves gathered together, folded, and treated as a single binding unit.

BOOK BLOCK (or text block) A group of signatures which form a book.

SPINE The back or folded edges of a group of signatures, or the part of the cover which protects this area.

ROUNDING AND BACKING - Rounding: The formation of the convex spine.

Backing: The formation of the supporting shoulders.

FORE-EDGE The front edge of the book, opposite the spine

END-PAPER A folded sheet of paper or additional blank signature acting as a protection for the book-block and as an attachment of book block to cover.

HEADBAND (End-band) Thread woven around an inner core to form a protection at the head and tail of the spine of the book; often now cloth wrapped around a core.

BANDS The ridges across the spine of the book; the supports around which the sections are sewn.

COVER The outer protection for the book-block.

JOINT - Inner joint (hinge): the inside hinge of the cover made of the fold of the end-paper or of a strip of paper or leather attached to the end-paper.

Outer joint: the point at which the cover boards pivot as the board opens.

SQUARE The portions of the covers of the book which project beyond the edges of the leaves of the book-block.

HEAD-CAP Covering leather shaped over the headband of the book.

TURN-IN The part of the covering material that is turned over the edges of the boards from the outside to the inside at the head, tail, and fore-edge of the book.

CASE A book cover that is constructed completely before affixing to a book-block.

TIPPING The attachment of a leaf to another by means of a narrow strip of adhesive along one edge; mostly used for maps, pates etc.

Materials Required for bookbinding

• Sheets of paper (depending upon the size of the book)
• Piece of cardboard
• Wallpaper, contact paper, felt or cotton fabric
• Paper cutter
• A pair of scissors
• White glue or wallpaper paste
• Needle with a large eye
• Twine, carpet thread, crochet thread or quilting thread.

Procedure

For the Book
Determine the size of the book that you require. Fold the sheets midway. If you want a book of 5 1/2″ x 9″ dimensions use sheets of paper having dimensions of 11″ x 18″ as folding them midway will give you pages of the desired size. Each side of a folded sheet of paper will give four pages. Hence divide the number of pages you want to have for your book by 4. Use one sheet extra than the number that you get. This extra sheet will serve as the first and the last page onto which the cover will be pasted.

Place all the sheets on top of each other. Fold them midway. Clip all the four edges to hold the sheets in place. You can also clip the center of the fold. Beginning ½ '' from the top of the fold, start marking for holes at regular intervals. Make holes with the needles and sew the book along the holes.

For the Cover
Cut two cardboard pieces in the shape of the book. These pieces could be the same size or a little larger than the book's dimensions. Place the two pieces on the felt, cloth or the material you are using to cover the cardboard pieces such that there is a gap of 1/8″ to 1/4″ between them. Draw the outline of the cardboard pieces on the material with a pencil. Remove the cardboard pieces. Now cut the material one inch around the entire outside of the pencil mark.

Apply glue to the cardboard pieces and place them along the pencil mark. Apply glue to the one inch of extra material along the border of the cardboard pieces. Fold in the four corners so that the tip of the corners of the material lies on the diagonal of the cardboard piece. Now fold in the material along the sides of the cardboard. Let the cover dry.

Apply glue to the outer sides of the first and the last page of the book. Place the book carefully along the center of the two cardboard pieces and smooth down. Close the book and place some weight over it. Leave it to dry for a few days.

T.L.E 21



"FISHERY ARTS"

Fishery

A fishery (plural: fisheries) is an organized effort by humans to catch fish or other aquatic species, an activity known as fishing. Generally, a fishery exists for the purpose of providing human food, although other aims are possible (such as sport or recreational fishing, or obtaining ornamental fish or fish products such as fish oil. Industrial fisheries are fisheries where the catch is not intended for direct human consumption.

Regardless of purpose, however, the term fishery generally refers to a fishing effort centered on either a particular ecoregion or a particular species or type of fish or aquatic animal, and usually fisheries are differentiated by both criteria. An example would be the salmon fishery of Alaska or the tuna fishery of the Eastern Pacific. Most fisheries are marine, rather than freshwater; most marine fisheries are based near the coast. This is not only because harvesting from relatively shallow waters is easier than in the open ocean, but also because fish are much more abundant near the coastal shelf, due to coastal upwelling and the abundance of nutrients available there.

Fisheries Science

Fisheries science is the academic discipline of managing and understanding fisheries. It draws on the disciplines of biology, ecology, oceanography, and management to attempt to provide an integrated picture of fisheries. It is typically taught in a university setting, and can be the focus of an undergraduate, master's or Ph.D. program. It is currently taught in universities worldwide, including several in the United States.

Important issues and topics in fisheries

Considering the importance of fisheries, and that they depend on a natural resource, it is no surprise that there are many pressing environmental issues surrounding them. These can be classed into issues that involve the availability of fish to be caught, such as overfishing, sustainable fisheries, and fishery management; and issues surrounding the impact of fishing on the environment, such by-catch. These fishery conservation issues are generally considered part of marine conservation, and many of these issues are addressed in fisheries science programs. They are also, however, controversial. There is an apparent and growing disparity between the availability of fish to be caught and humanity’s desire to catch them, a problem that is exacerbated by the rapidly growing worldwide population. As with some other environmental issues, often the people engaged in the activity of fishing – the fishers – and the scientists who study fisheries science, who are often acting as fishery managers, are in conflict with each other, as the dictates of economics mean that fishers have to keep fishing for their livelihood, but the dictates of sustainable science mean that some fisheries must close or reduce to protect the health of the population of the fish themselves. It is starting to be realized, however, that these two camps must work together to ensure fishery health through the 21st century and beyond.

HOW TO CONSTRUCT ARTIFICIAL FISHPOND

STEP 1: Choose a site. A location with lots of plants or a landscaped area would do nicely to give a more natural effect. Remember, the more at home the fishes are, the more they'll be encouraged to breed. Also, make sure that the temperature on that area would be ideal for the fishes.

STEP 2: Calculate how big should your pond be. Since i don't know what types of fishes you will be breeding, i can't do it for you. Yous said that you will breed as much as 100 fishes. I won't go lower than 300 gallons if I were you.

STEP 3: Choose what shape you want. some fish ponds are semi oblique, some rectangular, others circular. the list of shaped is almost endless.

STEP 4: Mark the area you want your pond to be.

STEP 5: Dig the pond, putting barricades on the sides/focal points of the pond to ensure that dirt won't fall back in. The deeper the pond, the better. a deep pond would deter any pests like cats and frogs to enter it.

STEP 6: Cement the floor and the walls. allow them to dry then apply two to three coatings of water proofing painty over it. Allow it to dry then add another layer of cement.

STEP7: If your pond has a wall behind it, decorate the walls with natural stones. this'll act as the primary filter media if you chose to have waterfalls for your pond.

STEP8: Barricade the pond with more concrete. the barricade should be at least 5--8 inches higher than the ground at 0.0 meters. This'll further deter any pests like frogs to enter the pond.

STEP 9: Put a hole somewhere in the higher reaches of the pond (ideally by the wall). this hole will serve as a deterrant against overflowing. water that is too much for the pond will be expelled through this hole

STEP 10: Decorate the pond to replicate your fishes's natural environment. the more at home they feel, the more chances you have of making them breed.

STEP 11: Put water in and let it cycle for 2 to 3 weeks for the growth and maturation of your mini enironemnt.

T.L.E 20

"AGRICULTURAL ARTS"

LIVESTOCK RAISING

Livestock (also cattle) refers to one or more domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce commodities such as food or fibre, or labor. The term "livestock" as used in this article does not include poultry or farmed fish; however the inclusion of these, especially poultry, within the meaning of "livestock" is common.

Livestock generally are raised for subsistence or for profit. Raising animals (animal husbandry) is an important component of modern agriculture. It has been practised in many cultures since the transition to farming from hunter-gather lifestyles.

The Importance of Livestock

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Livestock have an image problem in the developed world. They are blamed for everything from global warming to increasing heart disease. Britain's `mad cow disease' - or bovine spongiform encephalopathy - hasn't helped. Livestock are seen as wasteful, growing fat on grain that people could eat and polluting the environment with their faeces and urine and the gases they give off. But these charges are not true of livestock in the developing world.

True, ruminants produce methane gas, one of the `greenhouse gases' - but methane from ruminants accounts for only some 2.5 percent of the total greenhouse gases. Pastures grown to feed livestock take carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere, tying it up in plant material above and below the ground, just as forests do.

True, eating too many animal products may increase the risk of heart disease - but this is a problem of the developed world, not the developing world. People in developing countries generally eat much less meat than those in the developed world, and the meat they eat is less fatty. Indeed, recent studies from Kenya, Egypt and Mexico show that children who do not get enough meat and milk in their diets may grow up physically and mentally compromised.

Livestock play a vital role in the agricultural and rural economies of the developing world. Not only do they produce food directly, they also provide key inputs to crop agriculture. Most farms in the developing world are too small to justify owning or using a tractor, and the alternatives are animal power or human labor.

For many smallholder farmers, livestock are the only ready source of cash to buy inputs for crop production - seeds, fertilizers and pesticides. Livestock income also goes towards buying things the farmers cannot make for themselves. And that includes paying for school fees, medicine and taxes. Income from cropping is highly seasonal. In contrast, small stock, with their high rates of reproduction and growth, can provide a regular source of income from sales. So can milk and milk products like butter and cheese. Larger animals such as cattle are a capital reserve, built up in good times to be used when crops are poor or when the family is facing large expenses such as the cost of a wedding or a hospital bill.

In the past, farmers could restore the fertility of their land by letting it lie fallow for several years or longer. But as population pressure increases, fallow periods decline or even disappear and different ways of maintaining food production are needed: enter the animal.

Animals are a crucial link in nutrient cycles, returning nutrients to the soil in forms that plants can readily use. They can bring nutrients from pasture and rangeland and concentrate them on crop land through their manure and urine. The animal manure and urine that people in the developed world see as pollutants are vital fertilizers in the developing world. Few smallholders can afford enough mineral fertilizers. Animals give farmers a reason to plant legumes as pastures and cover crops that protect the soil and restore its structure and fertility. According to a Winrock report in 1992, `The greatest threat to [the African rangelands] comes from human populations and expansion of cultivation. There is no solid evidence linking livestock to this process [desertification].'

Increasing the productivity of livestock systems and mixed crop-livestock systems motivates farmers to protect their rangelands and use them sustainably for raising livestock rather than putting them to the plough.

Productive livestock can add value to `idle' land. Already, in many parts of the world mixed crop-livestock systems are the norm, but the importance of the livestock component has been overlooked. Even the language we use tends to reinforce this. When we talk about the non-grain parts of cereal crops, we tend to use terms like `crop residues' or `by-products'. Yet in many farming systems, such as the barley-sheep system of the drier parts of West Asia and North Africa and the tef-based system in the Ethiopian highlands, the farmers value these `by-products' as much as, if not more, than the grain. `Improved' varieties or production packages that overlook the feeding value of these `residues' will find little favor with the majority of farmers.

Intensive animal production in the developed world uses resources that could serve direct human uses - grain that could be eaten by people, land that could produce food crops, electricity that could illuminate and heat people's homes. But in the developing world livestock add value to resources that would otherwise go to waste. Marginal land that cannot -- and indeed should not -- be ploughed; straw, stovers, groundnut haulm, household wastes, all go to feeding livestock in smallholder systems. Cassava peel, for example, feeds goats in humid West Africa. In Syria farmers allow weeds to grow in their cereal fields and then `rogue' them to feed to their sheep. The weeds slightly reduce cereal grain yields, but the productivity of the system as a whole is higher than if they sprayed herbicides to control the weeds. And the environment is protected.

The research task facing the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and its research partners is to develop ways of managing livestock that maximize the benefits to smallholders while minimizing any harm livestock can inflict on the environment. Well-managed, the benefits to smallholders of keeping livestock are overwhelming.

RAISING SWINE

Selection

Buy a weaned pig weighing about 40 pounds, eight weeks old. The hog should have already been wormed. If you are raising swine for eating purposes only, then purchased male pigs should already be castrated, and now referred to as a barrow.

When selecting a pig, choose the healthiest one. Even if you have little experience with swine, it is easy to spot the healthy ones in a litter. Do not pick a small, listless animal or one with obvious defects. Choose one with bright eyes, alert nature and a good appetite.

Feeding

Since feed costs represent 70 to 75% of the cost of swine production, you should carefully analyze all aspects of the feeding program. Swine require various levels of nutrients depending upon size and weight. In general, nutrients can be classified as energy, protein, minerals and vitamins.

Energy is expressed as the amount of total digestible nutrients (TDN). As a general rule, rations that contain 70-80% TDN are adequate for all classes of pigs. Young pigs, up to 77 pounds, need about 16% protein in their diet for optimum growth and development. On the average, a 40-pound pig will eat about 2.75 pounds of 16% protein feed a day and gain 1.10 pounds a day. Barrows will eat slightly more and gain slightly more than gilts, and consequently often cost a little more to purchase. Pigs this age require about a gallon of water per day.

Vitamins and minerals are important in any animal’s diet, and swine are no exception. Most producers will either buy a complete ration from a feed company or purchase a hog supplement to mix with homegrown feeds. If you do the latter, be sure to follow the manufacturer’s instructions. Follow the nutrient requirements closely.

Care and Management

The care and management of the market hog is fairly simple. Usually all you need is to provide pigs with plenty of feed, water and adequate protection from the weather. However, a few other precautions should be followed:

• After purchasing your pig, take it home and allow it to get acquainted with the new surroundings. Then you should:

• Spray for lice.

• Treat for worms with a recommended wormer, once at about 40-50 pounds and again at 100 pounds.

• Check with your veterinarian on what shots, if any, are recommended.

• Provide feed and fresh water free choice at all times. (Best through the use of self-feeders).

• Watch that the pig does not get too hot in the summer. Since swine do not sweat as we do, they may need some help from you. You may need to spray pigs with a fine mist of water on very hot days.

• Cleaning the pen frequently and thoroughly will help you to raise your hogs without additional antibiotics and medication.

• Keep bedding dry.

• Sunshine and fresh air are the cheapest and best disinfectants.

• Good nutrition is essential for health.

T.L.E 90

"BASIC ELECTRONICS"

HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER

PARTS AND MATERIALS

• Low-voltage AC power supply (6 volt output)
• 6 volt battery
• One 1N4001 rectifying diode (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1101)
• Small "hobby" motor, permanent-magnet type (Radio Shack catalog # 273-223 or equivalent)
• Audio detector with headphones
• 0.1 µF capacitor (Radio Shack catalog # 272-135 or equivalent)

The diode need not be an exact model 1N4001. Any of the "1N400X" series of rectifying diodes are suitable for the task, and they are quite easy to obtain.

See the AC experiments chapter for detailed instructions on building the "audio detector" listed here. If you haven't built one already, you're missing a simple and valuable tool for experimentation.

A 0.1 µF capacitor is specified for "coupling" the audio detector to the circuit, so that only AC reaches the detector circuit. This capacitor's value is not critical. I've used capacitors ranging from 0.27 µF to 0.015 µF with success. Lower capacitor values attenuate low-frequency signals to a greater degree, resulting in less sound intensity from the headphones, so use a greater-value capacitor value if you experience difficulty hearing the tone(s).

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• Function of a diode as a rectifier
• Permanent-magnet motor operation on AC versus DC power
• Measuring "ripple" voltage with a voltmeter

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

ILLUSTRATION

T.L.E 51










"HANDICRAFTS"

CANDLE MAKING

The candle making supplies needed are:

1. Candle making wax
2. Wax dye
3. Wicks
4. Fragrance oils
5. Votive molds or containers

Easy stages of candle making

1. Now that you have gotten ingredients, you are prepared to start. Take the wax and rip it up into tiny bits.

2. Now boil the water in the special water boiler and add the smashed wax. Now have your thermometer and be sure the wax warms up to 160 degrees.

3. Mix the candle makers wax and put in your color choice a little at a time until you have the color you want.

4. Now it is best to put in the scent if you are going to utilize one. Be positive the wax stays the right temperature during the mixing and adding.

5. Now cut your candle wicks to the length you think you want. Commence dipping the wick into the hot wax.

6. Pull a piece of wick out and allow it to cool. Continue dipping and cooling until your candle is the size you want.

7. Keep on going until you dip the wick for the final time and let the candle totally cool down.

8. When it has totally cooled, you can commence to trim away the unwanted candle wick and your candle is now ready to use.

STUFFED TOY MAKING

Steps in making stuffed toys

1. Pick out a fabric you like.
   
   
2. Draw a sketch with a light colored marker (but be sure you can see it) of the animal or person you'd like to make. Be sure to leave about a 1/4 inch of cloth that you'll sew.
3. Cut out two figures from the sketch you've made. If you want to add anything now, go ahead.
4. Sew the two together with string inside out (if you drew on it, make sure the side you want on the outside is being sewn on the inside). Make sure to leave a hole to stuff it with!
5. With the same hole, turn the animal inside out. This hides the stitches and makes it look neater.
6. Stuff the animal with cotton or other material. Make sure it's not too tight, and don't under stuff it! (lay your head on the animal to see if you're comfortable, since many people sleep with stuffed animals, especially kids)
7. Sew the hole closed, either by hand or with a sewing machine.
8. Add embellishments! Take a rounded needle to make the eyes by either using a button or just stitching a circle. Add a mouth with a black yarn or draw one on!
9. Draw ears on the same cloth (or a different one to mix it up), cut them out, and sew them on. You can add pink fabric to the inside of the ear if you want.
10. Add all details like tails, ears, eyes, mouth, nose, and even if you want to add hair to the stuffed animal.

Step 2

Lay the pattern over a piece of fabric that has been folded in half with the outside of the material to the inside. Pin the pattern to the material.

Step 3

Cut the fabric following the pattern. Once the toy has been cut out, remove the pattern and re-pin the two pieces of fabric together.

Step 4

Sew three sides of the fabric together. Turn the stuffed toy inside out.

Step 5

Use fiberfill to stuff the toy. Use the eraser end of the pencil or a chopstick to stuff the fiberfill into arms, legs or other small areas.

Step 6

Sew the final seam of the toy by turning in the unfinished edges and sewing them together.

Step 7

Cut small circles or ovals from a contrasting material to use as eyes if you are making an animal or doll. Sew the eyes in the appropriate place.

Step 8

Sew a nose and mouth using a double strand of embroidery thread, if needed.

Read more: How to Make Stuffed Toys | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/how_4793718_make-stuffed-toys.html#ixzz0vAxkppAQ